TOEFL iBT Mock Test 2 - Reading

Coral reefs, often called the rainforests of the sea, are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. These underwater structures provide habitat for approximately 25% of all marine species, despite covering less than 1% of the ocean floor. Coral reefs also play a crucial role in coastal protection, serving as natural barriers against waves and storms that can cause significant damage to shorelines. However, coral reefs are facing unprecedented threats from climate change. Rising sea temperatures have led to widespread coral bleaching, a phenomenon where corals expel the symbiotic algae that provide them with energy and color. When water temperatures rise just 1-2 degrees Celsius above normal, corals become stressed and expel these algae, leaving them vulnerable to disease and death. Ocean acidification, another consequence of increased carbon dioxide levels, further compounds the problem. As the ocean absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere, it becomes more acidic, making it difficult for corals to build and maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. This process weakens the structural integrity of reefs and slows their growth. Despite these challenges, researchers and conservationists are developing various strategies to protect and restore coral reefs. Marine protected areas have been established in many regions, providing safe havens where corals can recover. Scientists are also researching coral species that show greater resistance to bleaching and developing techniques to help corals adapt to changing conditions. The survival of coral reefs is not just an environmental concern but also an economic one. Reefs support fisheries worth billions of dollars annually and provide coastal protection services estimated at $9 billion per year. Moreover, coral reefs attract millions of tourists, supporting jobs in tourism and related industries.

Humans make thousands of decisions every day, from simple choices like what to wear to complex ones like which career path to pursue. The field of behavioral economics has revealed that people often deviate from rational decision-making models, exhibiting systematic biases that affect judgment. One such bias is the anchoring effect, where individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. For example, if a shopper sees a shirt priced at $100 and then finds the same shirt on sale for $50, they may perceive the sale price as a great deal, even if $50 was the original market value. The initial $100 price serves as an anchor that influences subsequent judgments. Another common bias is loss aversion, the tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains. Studies show that people feel the pain of losing $100 more intensely than they feel the pleasure of gaining $100. This asymmetry in emotional response leads individuals to make conservative choices, such as holding onto losing investments rather than cutting losses. Confirmation bias also plays a significant role in decision making. People tend to seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. This can lead to poor decision outcomes, as individuals fail to consider alternative perspectives or challenge their assumptions. Understanding these cognitive biases can help individuals make better decisions. Strategies such as seeking diverse perspectives, considering opposite viewpoints, and using systematic decision-making frameworks can mitigate the impact of these biases. Organizations can also design systems that encourage more rational decision-making processes.